Amending the Constitution Essay

Step 1: Which route do you choose? The route I chose was Congress route. Smart start! Why? You remembered that, historically, constitutional amendments have never been initiated at national conventions, even though that is one of the two possible methods outlined in Article V. Your decision to use the route that has proved successful in the past increases the odds of your effort succeeding. Question #2: House or Senate First? Step 2: Which route do you choose? The route I chose was the House First. Great choice! Why? You have two distinct advantages in the House that you don’t have in the Senate: (1) you are a senior and respected member, and (2) a block of House members already supports the amendment. If you succeed in the House, your odds of also succeeding in the Senate are increased because the House vote may convince many skeptical senators. Question # 3: Negotiations in the House Step 3: Whose support will you go after? Good move! Why? Fiscal conservatives aren’t overjoyed with your decision, because leaving in the two-thirds language will still allow the government the option to run a deficit. But, they still want some kind of amendment that will make running a deficit more difficult for the government. Moderates, on the other hand, are happy that you’ve sided with them. The result is that the bill passes in the House by a comfortable margin, with only a small block of the most ardent fiscal conservatives voting against it. Question #4: A Court Challenge Step 4: What is your response? Good choice! Why? As your supporters thought, the suit is thrown out. The judge rules that it is without merit. Having wasted no time on the suit, you are ready to begin working on the Senate to pass your proposal. Question #5: Negotiations in the Senate Step 5: What is your response? Smart move! Why? The president gives a forceful speech in support of the proposed amendment and within three weeks the bill passes in the Senate. You’ve achieved your goal of succeeding at stage one of the process. Now you’ve got to turn your attention to getting two-thirds of the states to ratify the amendment, and that could take years. Your work is cut out for you, but you’ve made it farther than most! You Are Proposing a Constitutional Amendment (cont.) Conclusion Amending the U.S. Constitution is not easy. Remember, only 27 amendments to the Constitution have been ratified, while over 10,000 have been proposed. One reason there are so few amendments is that the writers of the Constitution made it very difficult to amend it. The two-stage process established by Article V sets the bar high and ensures that any amendments are supported throughout the land before they are added to the Constitution. Based on what you’ve learned in this simulation, consider the following: * Are there any issues right now that you think have enough support throughout the country to become constitutional amendments? * What is the primary benefit to having a constitution that is so difficult to amend? * What is the primary problem with having a constitution that is so difficult to amend? You have completed this activity. To find out if your professor has made a test available for the activity, close this window and return to your course.

Personal log

If you are a biologist interested in working in the tropical rainforest's, briefly describe a research study you could complete at each level in the biological hierarchy, starting from the organisms level to the biosphere. 2. What are the two biotic variables that dictate type of terrestrial bimbo? Do aquatic and marine systems rely on the same two variables? Why or why not? 3. Which of the terrestrial boomers Is the most vulnerable to anthropogenic (human) Influence and why?What Is being affected? 4. Create a table that lists the bimbo, biotic variables that are elevate, and examples of organisms that would reside there. 5. Why arena species all over the planet? What influences dispersal? 6. What is the value of describing populations using density, dispersion, and demographic information? Be specific and be sure to demonstrate your understanding of the terms. 7. What are the two mall population growth models? What organisms may follow those growth models? 8.What factors influence t he populations described in #6? How do density-dependent and density-independent factors play a role? Chapter 41 1 . What are the five mall types of Interspecies Interactions discussed In the chapter? Describe each. . When Interactions result In a negative outcome for one species (e. G. Parasitism, predation, herbivore), the species that is affected will typically have a response to prevent that negative outcome. Describe examples of how species respond to these effects. 3.How do invasive species affect the natural populations? 4. What is the difference between a food chain and a food web? 5. What type of ecosystems would likely demonstrate bottom-up control? Top-down control? Why? 6. Is ecological disturbance a bad thing? Why or why not? Give an example to support your answer. 7. How did MacArthur and Wilson demonstrate the connection between area and species richness & diversity? Chapter 42 1 . Why do ecologists need to understand the laws of thermodynamics? How do they apply to a n ecosystem? 2.How much energy Is being transferred for each atrophic level? 3. What is primary production? What limits primary production in aquatic ecosystems? Why is primary production so low in the open ocean? 4. Why can we say that biochemical cycles are nature's way of recycling? 5. List the inputs and outputs (to the atmosphere) of each of the following biochemical cycles: a. Water cycle b. Carbon cycle d. Phosphorus cycle Chapter 43 1. What are the three levels of biodiversity? Is one level more important to study than the others?Why or why not? 2. What are the threats to biodiversity? Describe specific examples of each. 3. Why are small populations at risk? Describe specific issues associated with small populations. 4. Should we preserve land in multiple small patches or one large patch (SOLOS theory – single large or several small)? Using your knowledge of landscape structure and biodiversity, how would you establish a protected area and why? 5. How does climate cha nge affect species diversity and distribution? 6. What do we mean by the term â€Å"sustainability'?

Forward the Foundation Chapter 4

8 Raych looked at Hari Seldon after the two politicians had gone and fingered his mustache. It gave him satisfaction to stroke it. Here in the Streeling Sector, some men wore mustaches, but they were usually thin despicable things of uncertain color-thin despicable things, even if dark. Most men did not wear them at all and suffered with naked upper lips. Seldon didn't, for instance, and that was just as well. With his color of hair, a mustache would have been a travesty. He watched Seldon closely, waiting for him to cease being lost in thought, and then found he could wait no longer. â€Å"Dad?† he said. Seldon looked up and said, â€Å"What?† He sounded a little annoyed at having his thoughts interrupted, Raych decided. Raych said, â€Å"I don't think it was right for you to see those two guys.† â€Å"Oh? Why not?† â€Å"Well, the thin guy, whatever his name is, was the guy you made trouble for at the Field. He can't have liked it.† â€Å"But he apologized.† â€Å"He didn't mean it. But the other guy, Joranum-he can be dangerous. What if they had had weapons?† â€Å"What? Here in the University? In my office? Of course not. This isn't Billibotton. Besides, if they had tried anything, I could have handled both of them together. Easily.† â€Å"I don't know, Dad,† said Raych dubiously. â€Å"You're getting-â€Å" â€Å"Don't say it, you ungrateful monster,† said Seldon, lifting an admonishing finger. â€Å"You'll sound just like your mother and I have enough of that from her. I am not getting old-or, at least, not that old. Besides, you were with me and you're almost as skilled a Twister as I am.† Raych's nose wrinkled. â€Å"Twisting ain't much good.† (It was no use. Raych heard himself speak and knew that, even eight years out of the morass of Dahl, he still slipped into using the Dahlite accent that marked him firmly as a member of the lower class. And he was short, too, to the point where he sometimes felt stunted. But he had his mustache and no one ever patronized him twice.) He said, â€Å"What are you going to do about Joranum?† â€Å"For now, nothing.† â€Å"Well, look, Dad, I saw Joranum on TrantorVision a couple of times. I even made some holotapes of his speeches. Everyone is talking about him, so I thought I would see what he has to say. And, you know, he makes some kind of sense. I don't like him and I don't trust him, but he does make some kind of sense. He wants all sectors to have equal rights and equal opportunities-and there ain't nothing wrong with that, is there?† â€Å"Certainly not. All civilized people feel that way.† â€Å"So why don't we have that sort of stuff? Does the Emperor feel that way? Does Demerzel?† â€Å"The Emperor and the First Minister have an entire Empire to worry about. They can't concentrate all their efforts on Trantor itself. It's easy for Joranum to talk about equality. He has no responsibilities. If he were in the position to rule, he would find that his efforts would be greatly diluted by an Empire of twenty-five million planets. Not only that, but he would find himself stopped at every point by the sectors themselves. Each one wants a great deal of equality for itself-but not much equality for others. Tell me, Raych, are you of the opinion that Joranum ought to have a chance to rule, just to show what he can do?† Raych shrugged. â€Å"I don't know. I wonder. But if he had tried anything on you, I would have been at his throat before he could move two centimeters.† â€Å"Your loyalty to me, then, exceeds your concern for the Empire.† â€Å"Sure. You're my dad.† Seldon looked at Raych fondly, but behind that look he felt a trace of uncertainty. How far could Joranum's nearly hypnotic influence go? 9 Hari Seldon sat back in his chair, the vertical back giving as he did so and allowing him to assume a half-reclining position. His hands were behind his head and his eyes were unfocused. His breathing was very soft, indeed. Dors Venabili was at the other end of the room, with her viewer turned off and the microfilms back in place. She had been through a rather concentrated period of revision of her opinions on the Florina Incident in early Trantorian history and she found it rather restful to withdraw for a few moments and to speculate on what it was that Seldon was considering. It had to be psychohistory. It would probably take him the rest of his life, tracking down the byways of this semichaotic technique, and he would end with it incomplete, leaving the task to others (to Amaryl, if that young man had not also worn himself out on the matter) and breaking his heart at the need to do that. Yet it gave him a reason for living. He would live longer with the problem filling him from end to end-and that pleased her. Someday she would lose him, she knew, and she found that the thought afflicted her. It had not seemed it would at the start, when her task had been the simple one of protecting him for the sake of what he knew. When had it become a matter of personal need? How could there be so personal a need? What was there about the man that caused her to feel uneasy when he was not in her sight, even when she knew he was safe so that the deeply ingrained orders within her were not called into action? His safety was all that she had been ordered to be concerned with. How did the rest intrude itself? She had spoken of it to Demerzel long before, when the feeling had made itself unmistakable. He had regarded her gravely and said, `'You are complex, Dors, and there are no simple answers. In my life there have been several individuals whose presence made it easier for me to think, pleasanter to make my responses. I have tried to judge the ease of my responses in their presence and the unease of my responses in their final absence to see whether I was the net gainer or loser. In the process, one thing became plain. The pleasantness of their company outweighed the regret of their passing. On the whole, then, it is better to experience what you experience now than not to.† She thought: Hari will someday leave a void, and each day that someday is closer, and I must not think of it. It was to rid herself of the thought that she finally interrupted him. â€Å"What are you thinking of, Hari?† â€Å"What?† Seldon focused his eyes with an apparent effort. â€Å"Psychohistory, I assume. I imagine you've traced another blind pathway.† â€Å"Well now. That's not on my mind at all.† He laughed suddenly. â€Å"Do you want to know what I'm thinking of? Hair!† â€Å"Hair? Whose?† â€Å"Right now, yours.† He was looking at her fondly. â€Å"Is there something wrong with it? Should I dye it another color? Or perhaps, after all these years, it should go gray.† â€Å"Come! Who needs or wants gray in your hair. But it's led me to other things. Nishaya, for instance.† â€Å"Nishaya? What's that?† â€Å"It was never part of the pre-Imperial Kingdom of Trantor, so I'm not surprised you haven't heard of it. It's a world, a small one. Isolated. Unimportant. Overlooked. I only know anything at all about it because I've taken the trouble to look it up. Very few worlds out of twenty-five million can really make much of a sustained splash, but I doubt that there's another one as insignificant as Nishaya. Which is very significant, you see.† Dors shoved her reference material to one side and said, â€Å"What is this new penchant you have for paradox, which you always tell me you detest? What is this significance of insignificance?† â€Å"Oh, I don't mind paradoxes when I perpetrate them. You see, Joranum comes from Nishaya.† â€Å"Ah, it's Joranum you're concerned with.† â€Å"Yes. I've been viewing some of his speeches-at Raych's insistence. They don't make very much sense, but the total effect can be almost hypnotic. Raych is very impressed by him.† â€Å"I imagine that anyone of Dahlite origins would be, Hari. Joranum's constant call for sector equality would naturally appeal to the downtrodden heatsinkers. You remember when we were in Dahl?† â€Å"I remember it very well and of course I don't blame the lad. It just bothers me that Joranum comes from Nishaya.† Dors shrugged. â€Å"Well, Joranum has to come from somewhere and, conversely, Nishaya, like any other world, must send its people out at times, even to Trantor.† â€Å"Yes, but, as I've said, I've taken the trouble to investigate Nishaya. I've even managed to make hyperspatial contact with some minor official which cost a considerable quantity of credits that I cannot, in good conscience, charge to the department.† â€Å"And did you find anything that was worth the credits?† â€Å"I rather think so. You know, Joranum is always telling little stories to make his points, stories that are legends on his home planet of Nishaya. That serves a good purpose for him here on Trantor, since it makes him appear to be a man of the people, full of homespun philosophy. Those tales litter his speeches. They make him appear to be from a small world, to have been brought up on an isolated farm surrounded by an untamed ecology. People like it, especially Trantorians, who would rather die than be trapped somewhere in an untamed ecology but who love to dream about one just the same.† â€Å"But what of it all?† â€Å"The odd point is that not one of the stories was familiar to the person I spoke to on Nishaya.† â€Å"That's not significant, Hari. It may be a small world, but it's a world. What is current in Joranum's birth section of the world may not be current in whatever place your official came from.† â€Å"No no. Folktales, in one form or another, are usually worldwide. But aside from that, I had considerable trouble in understanding the fellow. He spoke Galactic Standard with a thick accent. I spoke to a few others on the world, just to check, and they all had the same accent.† â€Å"And what of that?† â€Å"Joranum doesn't have it. He speaks a fairly good Trantorian. It's a lot better than mine, actually. I have the Heliconian stress on the letter `r.' He doesn't. According to the records, he arrived on Trantor when he was nineteen. It is just impossible, in my opinion, to spend the first nineteen years of your life speaking that barbarous Nishayan version of Galactic Standard and then come to Trantor and lose it. However long he's been here, some trace of the accent would have remained-Look at Raych and the way he lapses into his Dahlite way of speaking on occasion.† â€Å"What do you deduce from all this?† â€Å"What I deduce-what I've been sitting here all evening, deducing like a deduction machine-is that Joranum didn't come from Nishaya at all. In fact, I think he picked Nishaya as the place to pretend to come from, simply because it is so backwoodsy, so out-of-the-way, that no one would think of checking it. He must have made a thorough computer search to find the one world least likely to allow him to be caught in a lie.† â€Å"But that's ridiculous, Hari. Why should he want to pretend to be from a world he did not come from? It would mean a great deal of falsification of records.† â€Å"And that's precisely what he has probably done. He probably has enough followers in the civil service to make that possible. Probably no one person has done as much in the way of revision and all of his followers are too fanatical to talk about it.† â€Å"But still-Why?† â€Å"Because I suspect Joranum doesn't want people to know where he really comes from.† â€Å"Why not? All worlds in the Empire are equal, both by laws and by custom.† â€Å"I don't know about that. These high-ideal theories are somehow never borne out in real life.† â€Å"Then where does he come from? Do you have any idea at all?† â€Å"Yes. Which brings us back to this matter of hair.† â€Å"What about hair?† â€Å"I sat there with Joranum, staring at him and feeling uneasy, without knowing why I was feeling uneasy. Then finally I realized that it was his hair that made me uneasy. There was something about it, a life, a gloss†¦ a perfection to it that I've never seen before. And then I knew. His hair is artificial and carefully grown on a scalp that ought to be innocent of such things.† â€Å"Ought to be?† Dors's eyes narrowed. It was clear that she suddenly understood. â€Å"Do you mean-â€Å" â€Å"Yes, I do mean. He's from the past-centered, mythology-ridden Mycogen Sector of Trantor. That's what he's been laboring to hide.† 10 Dors Venabili thought coolly about the matter. It was her only mode of thought-cool. Not for her the hot flashes of emotion. She closed her eyes to concentrate. It had been eight years since she and Hari had visited Mycogen and they hadn't been there long. There had been little to admire there except the food. The pictures arose. The harsh, puritanical, male-centered society; the emphasis on the past; the removal of all body hair, a painful process deliberately self-imposed to make themselves different so that they would â€Å"know who they were†; their legends; their memories (or fancies) of a time when they ruled the Galaxy, when their lives were prolonged, when robots existed. Dors opened her eyes and said, â€Å"Why, Hari?† â€Å"Why what, dear?† â€Å"Why should he pretend not to be from Mycogen?† She didn't think he would remember Mycogen in greater detail than she; in fact, she knew he wouldn't, but his mind was better than hers-different, certainly. Hers was a mind that only remembered and drew the obvious inferences in the fashion of a mathematic line of deduction. He had a mind that leaped unexpectedly. Seldon liked to pretend that intuition was solely the province of his assistant, Yugo Amaryl, but Dors was not fooled by that. Seldon liked to pose as the unworldly mathematician who stared at the world out of perpetually wondering eyes, but she was not fooled by that, either. â€Å"Why should he pretend not to be from Mycogen?† she repeated as he sat there, his eyes lost in an inward look that Dors always associated with his attempt to squeeze one more tiny drop of usefulness and validity out of the concepts of psycho-history. Seldon said finally, â€Å"It's a harsh society, a limiting society. There are always those who chafe over its manner of dictating every action and every thought. There are always those who find they cannot entirely be broken to the harness, who want the greater liberties available in the more secular world outside. It's understandable.† â€Å"So they force the growth of artificial hair?† â€Å"No, not generally. The average Breakaway-that's what the Mycogenians call the deserters and they despise them, of course-wears a wig. It's much simpler but much less effective. Really serious Breakaways grow false hair, I'm told. The process is difficult and expensive but is almost unnoticeable. I've never come across it before, though I've heard of it. I've spent years studying all eight hundred sectors of Trantor, trying to work out the basic rules and mathematics of psychohistory. I have little enough to show for it, unfortunately, but I have learned a few things.† â€Å"But why, then, do the Breakaways have to hide the fact that they're from Mycogen? They're not persecuted that I know of.† â€Å"No, they're not. In fact, there's no general impression that Mycogenians are inferior. It's worse than that. The Mycogenians aren't taken seriously. They're intelligen -everyone admits that-highly educated, dignified, cultured, wizards with food, almost frightening in their capacity to keep their sector prosperous-but no one takes them seriously. Their beliefs strike people outside Mycogen as ridiculous, humorous, unbelievably foolish. And that view clings even to Mycogenians who are Breakaways. A Mycogenian attempt to seize power in the government would be crushed by laughter. Being feared is nothing. Being despised, even, can be lived with. But being laughed at-that's fatal. Joranum wants to be First Minister, so he must have hair, and, to be comfortable, he must represent himself as having been brought up on some obscure world as far from Mycogen as he can possibly manage.† â€Å"Surely there are some people who are naturally bald.† â€Å"Never as completely depilated as Mycogenians force themselves to be. On the Outer Worlds, it wouldn't matter much. But Mycogen is a distant whisper to the Outer Worlds. The Mycogenians keep themselves so much to themselves that it is a rare one, indeed, who has ever left Trantor. Here on Trantor, though, it's different. People might be bald, but they usually have a fringe of hair that advertises them as nonMycogenian-or they grow facial hair. Those very few who are completely hairless-usually a pathological condition-are out of luck. I imagine they have to go around with a doctor's certificate to prove they are not Mycogenians.† Dors, frowning slightly, said, â€Å"Does this help us any?† â€Å"I'm not sure.† â€Å"Couldn't you let it be known that he is a Mycegonian?† â€Å"I'm not sure that could be done easily. He must have covered his tracks well and even if it could be done-â€Å" â€Å"Yes?† Seldon shrugged. â€Å"I don't want to invite an appeal to bigotry. The social situation on Trantor is bad enough without running the risk of loosing passions that neither I nor anyone else could then control. If I do have to resort to the matter of Mycogen, it will only be as a last resort.† â€Å"Then you want minimalism, too.† â€Å"Of course.† â€Å"Then what will you do?† â€Å"I made an appointment with Demerzel. He may know what to do.† Dors looked at him sharply. â€Å"Hari, are you falling into the trap of expecting Demerzel to solve every problem for you?† â€Å"No, but perhaps he'll solve this one.† â€Å"And if he doesn't?† â€Å"Then I'll have to think of something else, won't I?† â€Å"Like what?† A look of pain crossed Seldon's face. â€Å"Dors, I don't know. Don't expect me to solve every problem, either.† 11 Eto Demerzel was not frequently seen, except by the Emperor Cleon. It was his policy to remain in the background for a variety of reasons, one of which was that his appearance changed so little with time. Hari Seldon had not seen him over a period of some years and had not spoken to him truly in private since the days of his early time on Trantor. In light of Seldon's recent unsettling meeting with Laskin Joranum, both Seldon and Demerzel felt it would be best not to advertise their relationship. A visit by Hari Seldon to the First Minister's office at the Imperial Palace would not go unnoticed, and so for reasons of security they had decided to meet in a small yet luxuriously appointed suite at the Dome's Edge Hotel, just outside the Palace grounds. Seeing Demerzel now brought back the old days achingly. The mere fact that Demerzel still looked exactly as he always had made the ache sharper. His face still had its strong regular features. He was still tall and sturdy-looking, with the same dark hair with the hint of blond. He was not handsome, but was gravely distinguished. He looked like someone's ideal picture of what an Imperial First Minister ought to look like, not at all like any such official in history before his time ever had. It was his appearance, Seldon thought, that gave him half his power over the Emperor, and therefore over the Imperial Court, and therefore over the Empire. Demerzel advanced toward him, a gentle smile curving his lips without altering in any way the gravity of his countenance. â€Å"Hari,† he said. â€Å"It is pleasant to see you. I was half-afraid you would change your mind and cancel.† â€Å"I was more than half-afraid you would, First Minister.† â€Å"Eto-if you fear using my real name.† â€Å"I couldn't. It won't come out of me. You know that.† â€Å"It will to me. Say it. I would rather like to hear it.† Seldon hesitated, as though he couldn't believe his lips could frame the words or his vocal cords sound them. â€Å"Daneel,† he said at length. â€Å"R. Daneel Olivaw,† said Demerzel. â€Å"Yes. You will dine with me, Hari. If I dine with you, I won't have to eat, which will be a relief.† â€Å"Gladly, though one-way eating is not my idea of a convivial time. Surely a bite or two-â€Å" â€Å"To please you-â€Å" â€Å"Just the same,† said Seldon, â€Å"I can't help but wonder if it is wise to spend too much time together.† â€Å"It is. Imperial orders. His Imperial Majesty wants me to.† â€Å"Why, Daneel?† â€Å"In two more years the Decennial Convention will be meeting again. You look surprised. Have you forgotten?† â€Å"Not really. I just haven't thought about it.† â€Å"Were you not going to attend? You were a hit at the last one.† â€Å"Yes. With my psychohistory. Some hit.† â€Å"You attracted the attention of the Emperor. No other mathematician did.† â€Å"It was you who were initially attracted, not the Emperor. Then I had to flee and stay out of the Imperial notice until such time as I could assure you that I had made a start on my psychohistorical research, after which you allowed me to remain in safe obscurity.† â€Å"Being the head of a prestigious Mathematics Department is scarcely obscurity.† â€Å"Yes, it is, since it hides my psychohistory.† â€Å"Ah, the food is arriving. For a while, let's talk about other things as befits friends. How is Dors?† â€Å"Wonderful. A true wife. Hounds me to death with her worries over my safety.† â€Å"That is her job.† â€Å"So she reminds me-frequently. Seriously, Daneel, I can never be sufficiently grateful to you for bringing us together.† â€Å"Thank you, Hari, but, to be truthful, I did not foresee married happiness for either of you, especially not Dors-â€Å" â€Å"Thank you for the gift just the same, however short of the actual consequences your expectations were.† â€Å"I'm delighted, but it is a gift, you will find, that may be of dubious further consequence-as is my friendship.† To this, Seldon could make no reply and so, at a gesture from Demerzel, he turned to his meal. After a while, he nodded at the morsel of fish on his fork and said, â€Å"I don't actually recognize the organism, but this is Mycogenian cooking.† â€Å"Yes, it is. I know you are fond of it.† â€Å"It's the Mycogenians' excuse for existence. Their only excuse. But they have special meaning to you. I mustn't forget that.† â€Å"The special meaning has come to an end. Their ancestors, long, long ago, inhabited the planet of Aurora. They lived three hundred years and more and were the lords of the Fifty Worlds of the Galaxy. It was an Auroran who first designed and produced me. I don't forget that; I remember it far more accurately-and with less distortion-than their Mycogenian descendants do. But then, long, long ago, I left them. I made my choice as to what the good of humanity must be and I have followed it, as best I could, all this time.† Seldon said with sudden alarm, â€Å"Can we be overheard?† Demerzel seemed amused. â€Å"If you have only thought of that now, it is far too late. But fear not, I have taken the necessary precautions. Nor have you been seen by too many eyes when you came. Nor will you be seen by too many when you leave. And those who do see you will not be surprised. I am well known to be an amateur mathematician of great pretensions but of little ability. That is a source of amusement to those at the court who are not entirely my friends and it would not surprise anyone here that I should be concerned about laying the groundwork for the forthcoming Decennial Convention. It is about the convention that I wish to consult you.† â€Å"I don't know that I can help. There is only one thing I could possibly talk about at the convention-and I can't talk about it. If I attend at all, it will only be as part of the audience. I do not intend to present any papers.† â€Å"I understand. Still, if you would like to hear something curious, His Imperial Majesty remembers you.† â€Å"Because you have kept me in his mind, I suppose.† â€Å"No. I have not labored to do so. However, His Imperial Majesty occasionally surprises me. He is aware of the forthcoming convention and he apparently remembers your talk at the earlier one. He remains interested in the matter of psychohistory and more may come of it, I must warn you. It is not beyond the bounds of possibility that he may ask to see you. The court will surely consider it a great honor-to receive the Imperial call twice in a single lifetime.† â€Å"You're joking. What could be served by my seeing him?† â€Å"In any case, if you are called to an audience, you can scarcely refuse. How are your young protegs, Yugo and Raych?† â€Å"Surely you know. I imagine you keep a close eye on me.† â€Å"Yes, I do. On your safety but not on every aspect of your life. I am afraid my duties fill much of my time and I am not all-seeing.† â€Å"Doesn't Dors report?† â€Å"She would in a crisis. Not otherwise. She is reluctant to play the role of spy in nonessentials.† Again the small smile. Seldon grunted. â€Å"My boys are doing well. Yugo is increasingly difficult to handle. He's more of a psychohistorian than I am and I think he feels I hold him back. As for Raych, he's a lovable rascal-always was. He won me over when he was a dreadful street urchin and what's more surprising is that he won over Dors. I honestly believe, Daneel, that if Dors grew sick of me and wanted to leave me, she would stay on anyway for her love of Raych.† Demerzel nodded and Seldon continued somberly. â€Å"If Rashelle of Wye hadn't found him lovable, I would not be here today. I would have been shot down-† He stirred uneasily. â€Å"I hate to think of that, Daneel. It was such an entirely accidental and unpredictable event. How could psychohistory have helped in any way?† â€Å"Have you not told me that, at best, psychohistory can deal only in probabilities and with vast numbers, not with individuals?† â€Å"But if the individual happens to be crucial-â€Å" â€Å"I suspect you will find that no individual is ever truly crucial. Not even I-or you.† â€Å"Perhaps you're right. I find that, no matter how I work away under these assumptions, I nevertheless think of myself as crucial, in a kind of supernormal egotism that transcends all sense. And you are crucial, too, which is something I have come here to discuss with you-as frankly as possible. I must know.† â€Å"Know what?† The remains of the meal had been cleared away by a porter and the room's lighting dimmed somewhat so that the walls seemed to close in and give a feeling of great privacy. Seldon said, â€Å"Joranum.† He bit off the word, as though feeling the mention of the name alone should be sufficient. â€Å"Ah. Yes.†** â€Å"You know about him?† â€Å"Of course. How could I not know?† â€Å"Well, I want to know about him, too.† â€Å"What do you want to know?† â€Å"Come, Daneel, don't play with me. Is he dangerous?† â€Å"Of course he is dangerous. Do you have any doubt of that?† â€Å"I mean, to you? To your position as First Minister?† â€Å"That is exactly what I mean. That is how he is dangerous.† â€Å"And you allow it?† Demerzel leaned forward, placing his left elbow on the table between them. â€Å"There are things that don't wait for my permission, Hari. Let us be philosophical about it. His Imperial Majesty, Cleon, First of that Name, has now been on the throne for eighteen years and for all that time I have been his Chief of Staff and then his First Minister, having served in scarcely lesser capacities during the last years of the reign of his father. It is a long time and First Ministers rarely remain that long in power.† â€Å"You are not the ordinary First Minister, Daneel, and you know it. You must remain in power while psychohistory is being developed. Don't smile at me. It's true. When we first met, eight years ago, you told me the Empire was in a state of decay and decline. Have you changed your mind about that?† â€Å"No, of course not.† â€Å"In fact, the decline is more marked now, isn't it?† â€Å"Yes, it is, though I labor to prevent that.† â€Å"And without you, what would happen? Joranum is raising the Empire against you.† â€Å"Trantor, Hari. Trantor. The Outer Worlds are solid and reasonably contented with my deeds so far, even in the midst of a declining economy and lessening trade.† â€Å"But Trantor is where it counts. Trantor-the Imperial world we're living on, the capital of the Empire, the core, the administrative center- is what can overthrow you. You cannot keep your post if Trantor says no. â€Å"I agree.† â€Å"And if you go, who will then take care of the Outer Worlds and what will keep the decline from being precipitate and the Empire from degenerating rapidly into anarchy?† â€Å"That is a possibility, certainly.† â€Å"So you must be doing something about it. Yugo is convinced that you are in deadly danger and can't maintain your position. His intuition tells him so. Dors says the same thing and explains it in terms of the Three Laws or Four of-of-â€Å" â€Å"Robotics,† put in Demerzel. â€Å"Young Raych seems attracted to Joranum's doctrines-being of Dahlite origin, you see. And I-I am uncertain, so I come to you for comfort, I suppose. Tell me that you have the situation well in hand.† â€Å"I would do so if I could. However, I have no comfort to offer. I am in danger.† â€Å"Are you doing nothing?† â€Å"No. I'm doing a great deal to contain discontent and blunt Joranum's message. If I had not done so, then perhaps I would be out of office already. But what I'm doing is not enough.† Seldon hesitated. Finally he said, â€Å"I believe that Joranum is actually a Mycogenian.† â€Å"Is that so?† â€Å"It is my opinion. I had thought we might use that against him, but I hesitate to unleash the forces of bigotry.† â€Å"You are wise to hesitate. There are many things that might be done that have side effects we do not want. You see, Hari, I don't fear leaving my post-if some successor could be found who would continue those principles that I have been using to keep the decline as slow as possible. On the other hand, if Joranum himself were to succeed me, then that, in my opinion, would be fatal.† â€Å"Then anything we can do to stop him would be suitable.† â€Å"Not entirely. The Empire can grow anarchic, even if Joranum is destroyed and I stay. I must not, then, do something that will destroy Joranum and allow me to stay-if that very deed promotes the Fall of the Empire. I have not yet been able to think of anything I might do that would surely destroy Joranum and just as surely avoid anarchy.† â€Å"Minimalism,† whispered Seldon. â€Å"Pardon me?† â€Å"Dors explained that you would be bound by minimalism.† â€Å"And so I am.† â€Å"Then my visit with you is a failure, Daneel.† â€Å"You mean that you came for comfort and didn't get it.† â€Å"I'm afraid so.† â€Å"But I saw you because I sought comfort as well.† â€Å"From me?† â€Å"From psychohistory, which should envision the route to safety that I cannot.† Seldon sighed heavily. â€Å"Daneel, psychohistory has not yet been developed to that point.† The First Minister looked at him gravely. â€Å"You've had eight years, Hari.† â€Å"It might be eight or eight hundred and it might not be developed to that point. It is an intractable problem.† Demerzel said, â€Å"I do not expect the technique to have been perfected, but you may have some sketch, some skeleton, some principle that you can use as guidance. Imperfectly, perhaps, but better than mere guesswork.† â€Å"No more than I had eight years ago,† said Seldon mournfully. â€Å"Here's what it amounts to, then. You must remain in power and Joranum must be destroyed in such a way that Imperial stability is maintained as long as possible so that I may have a reasonable chance to work out psychohistory. This cannot be done, however, unless I work out psychohistory first. Is that it?† â€Å"It would seem so, Hari.† â€Å"Then we argue in a useless circle and the Empire is destroyed.† â€Å"Unless something unforeseen happens. Unless you make something unforeseen happen.† â€Å"I? Daneel, how can I do it without psychohistory?† â€Å"I don't know, Hari.† And Seldon rose to go-in despair.

The Quality of Service and the Determining Factor of the Success Essay - 5

The Quality of Service and the Determining Factor of the Success - Essay Example The quality of service the customer gets is gauged by the relationship between customer expectation and the performance. Each business aims at fully satisfying the customer needs as well as making profits. The transaction between the customer and the company starts right from when the customer enters the shop to when he gets home with the purchased product. Before the customer asks for the commodity, the employee should welcome them, talk to them politely and make them feel appreciated. This first step motivates the customer to buy whatever product they have in mind (Weinstein, 2012). The proper explanation should be given to the customer on any enquiries they make. The service provider should inform the customer of all the advantages of the product and the other substitutes that the company is offering. No matter the kind of questions asked by the customer, the service provider should always understand that the customer is always right (Weinstein, 2012). After the customer has succe ssfully purchased the product, any enquiries he/she makes either on call or in person should be taken seriously and with utmost care. Make the customer feel like you still care about them and the kind of service they are getting from the commodity purchased. The following table analyses the ABX airline and the Everts airline, which are both cargo airlines in the USA. Everts provide quality service but in terms of the image they have to the customers, they are far below the expected standards. Their prices are very high as compared to the quality of service they provide.

Contract management and contract law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Contract management and contract law - Essay Example In a capitalist world, the law of contract essentially forms a major portion of the society we live in. It is the realm of deliberate agreement and collaboration, to be more specific, contract deals with the activities like exchange and bargain. The purpose of the act of Contracts is to create possibilities, or to assist this action. It helps two or more parties in the function of arranging for the future plans by shielding the anticipations that take place from the process of bargaining. In the process of forming a contract the parties require a lawfulstructure which will provide them with a conventional, consistent, steadyfoundation for theconcealedcategorization of their affairs. Agreements between two or more parties turn into a contract with the intervention of law. A legal contract comprises of five essential elements without which the contract is referred to as invalid. In the following sections we will discuss the various scenarios related to the benefit of the procuring part y as well as we will discuss about the Sale of Goods Act, INCOTERMS and the transfer of risk to the supplier from the viewpoint of the UK Contract Act. Answer 1 The procurement process in my organization must make sure that the five vital tenets of contract are met while entering into a contract with other parties. The five tenets of contract are- 1. Offer- Offer and acceptance are the essential elements of a contract. Before going in depth of the definition of offer and acceptance, let us first recognize the parties involved in the framework of offer and acceptance. ... The five tenets of contract are- 1. Offer- Offer and acceptance are the essential elements of a contract. Before going in depth of the definition of offer and acceptance, let us first recognize the parties involved in the framework of offer and acceptance. The structure of offer and acceptance involves an offeror who puts forth the offer and an offeree, to whom the offer has been made by the offeror. Thus now we can look at the definition of the offer and acceptance framework, which states that an offer is a statement or proposal by an offeror to an offeree with an intention to make lawful relations. An offer cannot be considered simply as an incitement to negotiate or bargain. To make the communication effectual and complete, the offer must be received and accepted by the offeree. In a buying and selling contract, to make an offer legitimate, the following aspects must be clearly defined: Who is the offeror? Who is the offeree? What is the consideration? What is the area under discu ssion of the offer? How many central themes does the offer entail (quantity)? Any communication would be considered as an offer if it signifies the expression on which the person making the offer is ready to create a contract (like setting the price of a product intended to be sold), and provides a clear hint that the offeror wishes to abide by the terms if those are acknowledged by the offeree. Offer can also be made to the general public, for example a marketer offering discount to the people visiting his shop. This kind of offer is generally known as unilateral offer where the offer is addressed to a large number of people and their actions indicate their acceptance of the

Consumer Law Undergraduate Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Consumer Law Undergraduate - Case Study Example In instances of failure, CIF has determined that the buyer may reject tender of the documents, refuse acceptance of the goods and argue breach of contract.2 FOB terms are in concurrence with the stated, as is SoGA (1979). Sections 14, 2a and 14, 2b places equal emphasis on conformity. Insofar as the sale of goods contract references specified goods, the buyer is obligated to provide the seller with goods which confirmed to those referenced in the contract. 3Assuming that the goods are conforming, the seller is further responsible for making the necessary arrangements regarding the affreightment and insurance of the goods, the issuance of a commercial invoice and the tender of the relevant documents to the buyer within a reasonable timeframe, or as specified in the contract.4 Case law emphasises the liability of sellers in instances of proven non-conformity. In the matter of Slater v Finney (1996),5 the buyers claimed breach of implied condition of fitness, in accordance with SoGA(1979), Section 14, 3, maintaining that the shipping vessel which they purchased from the sellers did not satisfy the purpose for which they purchased it. ... In the matter of Soules Caf v PT Transap of Indonesia (1998) the court found that the buyer had the right to reject the documents since they were inconsistent with CIF terms pertaining to insurance and as a consequence of the seller's failure to perform his CIF obligations.7 The meaning of this is that the right to reject is immediately linked to the question of whether or not the seller fulfilled his obligations and not to whether the goods were damaged during the voyage or not. Therefore, even if the goods are damaged, Baxwell, must fulfil all of his obligations. The fact is that a significant percentage of the goods have been damaged, inhibiting Baxwell from exploiting them for the purpose for which he bought them. SoGA, Sections 15A and 15B, provides that the goods delivered should be in the type and condition which allow the buyer to satisfy the purpose of purchase.8 CIF terms additionally emphasise this right.9 Consequently, it is apparent that even though Sweet does not appear liable, as he had fulfilled his contractual obligations, Baxwell should not carry the financial burden potentially imposed upon him by the damage done to the goods. Assignment of liability for the damages, necessitates a review of the concepts of property and risk, as outlined by SoGA and CIF. The first consideration is the separation between passage of proprietorship and passage of risk. The CIF terms on which the sales of goods contract between Baxwell and Sweet is founded upon separates between the two. Property passes from the seller to the buyer upon the tender of the documents and the payment of the sums owed. Risk, however, and especially as delivery is at a distant port, does not

Local Health Departments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Local Health Departments - Essay Example They are departments, which screen and treat sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in rural communities (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2011). Indeed, local health departments carry out immunization clinics, disease surveillance, health screenings, offer pre-natal care, dental health promotion activities, and participate in environmental health programs (Ohio Department of Health, 2012). Notably, Local health departments play a significant role in promoting public health services in Connecticut County in America. Some of the community partners or stakeholders that are central in Connecticut public health system include St. Vincent’s Health Partners, which is an independent physician-hospital organization that seeks to address the health of high-risk populations in this community. We also have the United Cerebral Palsy Association of S.E. Connecticut, Connecticut Main Street Center, Alliance for Living, and Lawrence & Memorial Hospital (Connecticut College, 2013). Connecticut College. (2013). Working with Community Health Partners. Retrieved from: http://www.conncoll.edu/offices/office-of-volunteers-for-community-service/what-we-do/student-run-programs/pre-health-program/working-with-community-health-partners/ National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2011). The role of local health departments in providing sexually transmitted disease services and surveillance in rural communities. Retrieved from:

Mind and Consciousness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mind and Consciousness - Essay Example Syntactic knowledge is, to much an extent, dependent upon the system. The same action may have various commands with the change of the machine. â€Å"Also conventions can be a source of difficulties, for example using â€Å"S† for saving or for sending a file can produce confusing experiences† (Dursteler, 2011). Semantic knowledge, on the other hand, points towards the understanding of meanings that are not linked with particular experiences. It is the conscious recollection of knowledge about our surroundings and the whole world in the broader context irrespective of the context. For example, it is because of my semantic knowledge that I am able to differentiate between the meanings of individual words in language. The form and content of knowledge are two entirely different areas. Forms of knowledge can be classified into three types, namely the intellectual knowledge, knowledge of stats, and the knowledge of reality. Intellectual knowledge is an assemblage of facts which can be used to derive intellectual conclusions. Knowledge of states is basically emotionalism, in which an individual is occupied by extreme thoughts. The knowledge of reality enables a man to identify the ultimate truth. This form of knowledge is commonly retained by Sufis and spiritual people. The content of knowledge, on the other hand, is all that shapes an individual’s vision and opinion. The form of knowledge is more concerned with the state of mind whereas the content of knowledge is what is displayed in the form of knowledge. Machines have limited knowledge. When assessing machine intelligence, it must be ensured that the form of knowledge is consistent with the content of knowledge stored in it. Human brain and computer are so different structurally that they are almost incomparable (Scaruffi, 2001). The fundamental difference between thinking power, consciousness and knowledge of human intelligence and machine intelligence is the fact that the former is

Strategic Management of Information Systems Essay - 1

Strategic Management of Information Systems - Essay Example The Information Systems (IS) can be considered as an example of such sector. In fact, it seems that the interaction between IS strategy and business strategy is quite close. This means that the success of business strategy is highly depended on the effectiveness of IS strategy and vice versa. On the other hand, the intervention of IS strategy on business strategy is not standardized, as of its level; rather differences can be identified across businesses in different industries. The relationship between the IS strategy and the business strategy is explored in this paper by referring to a particular organization. The firm operates in the financial services industry; it is implied that the dependency of the firm on IS systems is strong. During the last 3 years the firm has managed to achieve a rapid growth, a fact that has been related to the effectiveness of its IS. However, failures, at operational level, have not been avoided, a problem that could affect the business performance in the long term. The presentation and analysis of the firm’s IS strategy and business strategy could help to realize the role of these strategies in the achievement of competitive advantage and the criteria that a successful investment on IS systems should meet. At the next level, recommendations are made for developing a risk management strategy so that the chances for severe organizational failures in the future are minimized. Within each organization IS can have a different role. For example, there are IS systems that are developed for addressing specific business problems (Oz 2008). There are also IS systems that are introduced only for ‘creating opportunities’ (Oz 2008, p.42). These opportunities aim to help an organization to increase its competitiveness in its industry, either at local or international level (Oz 2008). The above IS systems are also known as ‘strategic information systems, SIS’ (Oz 2008, p.42). These IS systems are of critical importance for business

Admission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Admission - Essay Example My passion for law was converted in strong belief after I encountered a tragic incident in my childhood. One of my mother’s patients was working in a company which went bankrupt. This patient became miserable as he was not able to gain any security or financial help from the company. At the same time, he lacked the knowledge about the legal resources available to fight the company for his rights. Finally, the feeling of injustice, despair and insecurity drove him to commit suicide. This incidence shocked me to the core and my decision of pursuing law strengthened. I realized that people involved in the field of law can play a very crucial and important role in awakening people about their rights in the society. Law not only is influential in helping individuals in claiming their rights but also can help organizations and countries by developing awareness of justice in their citizens. These aspects of law made me to aspire to be an expert in the field of law. I also realized th at the injustice and the inhuman treatment suffered by innocent people in my country can be changed only with the help of law. I wanted to be a person who can bring happiness in lives of innocent people by fighting for their rights. As Oscar Wilde said â€Å"Some cause happiness wherever they go; others whenever they go.† The enthusiasm in learning law may have originated from immature and childlike idea, however, the desire to do the Juris Doctor (JD) programme in University of __ was a thoughtful decision as it is not only my interest but a stepping stone for the developmental needs for the future experience. Having a strong desire to study law was instrumental in me leaving Mainland China and come to an international city of Hong Kong, which was world-class in professionalism and opportunities, to study Bachelor Degree in_____. In the four-year study, I obtained a strong foundation in the major subjects like Policy Studies and Social

Attrition in Pharma Industry Essay Example for Free

Attrition in Pharma Industry Essay Insights of attrition rate of Medical representatives in Pharma companies and innovative ways to improve them. Overview: Attrition refers to the reduction in staff and employees of company by normal means. The primary focus is to present the high attrition rate seen in the pharmaceutical market industry, its causes and controlling strategy for retention of Pharma sales representatives. Though attrition is a natural phenomena in all industries, Indian Pharma marketing industries is worst plagued by it. After IT and BPO, Pharma marketing industries experience the greatest rate of employee leaving the company for various reasons. While global Pharma marketing attrition rate is 10-12% per annum, the rate of employees who leave the organization in India is 25 -30 %. The attrition is more prevalent in the middle and junior management level, due to which majority of the companies have understood the criticality of talent management. Retention is always a big challenge for any organization in today’s time frame. Indian Pharma companies have started paying attention towards the retainment and management of the Medical Representatives to gain key and valuable employees back into the company. High attrition rate of MR happens due to following reasons: 1) External factors The demand of fresh talent is more. The companies are looking for fresh talent to incorporate new ideas but the supply is very less, career view point of many young people to join as MR is just to prevent the ‘Stop Gap’ in their career path. The demand-supply imbalance leads to significant efforts to retain and attract a skilled Medical Representative. This has led to higher salary hikes in the Pharma sector than most other sectors .This is clearly a challenge in an industry which is very knowledge and relationship driven. 2) Internal factors It has been observed that many MR leave their job during the first 3 months itself due to the reasons like they were not serious about their job, They were overqualified and lost interest in their job, They might even be under-qualified and felt bogged down by the challenges of the job, They lack motivation, feel less growth in career path, Monotonous work, limited  training and development opportunities, wor king environment as well salary and compensation becomes an important issue in some cases etc. Now to meet the global competitiveness; Pharma companies have transformed their survival strategy to competitive strategy as a result there is huge pressures on the shoulder of medical representatives for higher secondary sales achievement and thereby constantly poking the field force which eventually leads to attrition. So the people change organizations frequently. Similarly poor management is also one of the key factors responsible for leaving the organizations. There is a popular saying â€Å"employee leaves the boss not the organizations. â€Å" Poor management includes lack of support to the employee, lack of transparent career growth ladder, adverse relation between the boss and subordinates, lack of motivation. Psychological relationship between leaders and employee is very crucial for sticking of employee in a particular organization. Thus, Organization culture also plays a significant role in sticking of Pharma sales representative in the same company for long run. Retention of the talented employees is always the most important agenda for any company to grow. Sometimes monetary benefits can help as by recent survey it was shown that more and more medical representatives are moving in insurance, telecommunications etc as they are paid double in those sectors but only monetary benefits are not sufficient to retain them it ultimately becomes a hygiene factor in talent management. Thus looking for new methods for attracting, motivating and retaining them becomes very important. Being the first line manager few suggestions to reduce attrition rate: 1. Treat employees as you like to be treated:  Treating and handling the employee with appreciation and care is most necessary. While addressing or pointing out their problems they shouldn’t be criticized and rather should be explained in a courteous manner. The sales representative undergoes a lot of pressures and tensions regarding the achievement of targeted sales so, they should be motivated continuously and should be dealt in same manner as the first line manager or other seniors would like to be treated. Incentives like give free monthly travelling passes, movie tickets, etc. can be given. 2. Ask employees for their opinions and implement the good ideas: Having equal contribution from the entire sales force representatives can have an impact over representative’s mind that their ideas and thoughts are valued and are taken into consideration when need arises. Having certain schemes for bringing about certain new ideas to increase the sales level should be implemented, this shall bring about a flow of innovative ideas and also execution of those ideas will bring about a sense of dignity among employee. 3. Reward those that go above and beyond the call of duty: Certain incentives can be granted when a particular sales representative works excellently and achieves sales beyond the targeted levels. There could also be certain cases when an employee performs or outdoes something which wasn’t achieved by any employee in the company before, for that he should be acknowledged well and should be awarded like salesman of the year, highest target achiever, fastest target achiever, etc. and they should be felicitated in front of the whole company instead of felicitating through emails. 4. Take very good care of your star performers or someone else will: Taking good care of star performers is very essential. Their qualities maybe unique and selling strategies might be very effective. Interacting and making them comfortable about their job shall retain the employee in the company and chances of him leaving the company for another might reduce to some extent. If they are performing really well incentives like foreign trips, etc. can be given. 5. Communicate with your staff: Sales peoples sometimes feel that the company doesn’t care enough for them. So, the higher level executives can make a point to interact with them at a time and get a knowhow about what problems they are facing on the field and other certain issues. First line manager should always communicate through all the sessions with each employee and have discussion regarding all the sales meet and problems related to those the sales rep might’ve had. 6. Hold skip level meetings to make sure that you’re Managers/Directors  are treating their staff correctly: Skip level meetings by higher ups can bring about more peachy feeling in the employee they might feel the concern and guardianship from top executives. This shall further charge and motivate them for the tasks they perform. 7. Build career planning for each employee: If employee wants to pursue further education the company can help by providing him admission in collaborated institutions- tailor made courses as well as sponsoring its education thus meeting the need of the employee which motivates him as well as help the company in retaining him. 8. Bring about job rotation and more growth opportunities: Giving growth opportunities like promotion and assigning certain new functionalities in the job shall increase the overall knowledge about the sales rep and also he won’t feel monotonous about the work he’s been performing. This shall give in-depth knowledge about other functions in the company and shall thereby increase the understanding of the employee about working of the other sectors in company. 9. Making them feel like family member: The employees of the company should be treated as the assets and they must be treated like a family member. Salesperson job is mostly to work out of the company, in such cases wishing them on their birthdays, anniversaries, etc. can be done. Also, paying visit or giving condolences to the MR on death of his family member can make him feel concerned and a part of family. 10. Optimizing target policies: Instead of having fixed monthly targets, the sales targets could be designed individually by looking through their past month performances. Depending on that each month the targeted sales could be increased or optimized depending upon past months performance. This shall bring about an upscale in sales level too. Conclusion: Thus for retaining MR the first line manager should focus on each and every step right from the recruitment, to training and development, rewards and appraisals even fulfilling the needs of MR as all of these steps play a crucial role in motivating and keeping him attracted towards his job.

History of Ergonomics Essay Example for Free

History of Ergonomics Essay Ergonomics refers to the study of the interaction between humans and the environment. This study is aimed at understanding mechanisms that are necessary in order to improve the working conditions of humans. Such working conditions include health, performance and comfort. The study is intended at enhancing strategies that optimize the performance of humans at work. This implies that it focuses on techniques that are required to restructure office etiquette and procedures in order to improve the overall productivity. However, ergonomics is not necessarily limited to office environment as it also encompasses other fields of human life. In a practical perspective, ergonomics is a science concerned with the design of office equipments and artifacts in order to improve the comfort of workers and improve the overall productivity and effectiveness (Gilmore et al. , 1998). An ergonomicist is interested in the study of the interaction between humans and the tools they use in their working environments. The study of ergonomic includes the design of office equipments and space, and the positioning of switches in control rooms. It additionally includes the study of the interaction of the human behavior and their surrounding. This study originated form Greece where the term ergonomics was derived from ergon meaning work and nomos meaning natural law in Greek. Later on a 19th century sociologist Fredrik Taylor invented the term ‘Scientific management’ to gain maximum results in the factory work. Since then, the practice of ergonomics has tremendously developed over time. As the age of space approaches, new factors continue to emerge such as weightlessness and gravitational force. As the modern world progresses into the future, the field of ergonomics continues to become more sophisticated. In the United States, an army personnel known as Alphonse Chapanis in 1943 explained that plane accidents caused by pilot errors could be significantly be reduced by using a more simple and rational cockpit instead of the common control layout (Jubel, 2007). Institutional ergonomics is concerned with the socio-technical aspects of the work environment which refers to the amalgamation of structure, process and organizational strategies. Cognitive ergonomics deals with the psychological perspectives of the workplace which involves the study of ideas, opinion and memory. In academic viewpoint, the study of ergonomics would comprise the knowledge of psychology, engineering and health science. It is therefore necessary for an ergonomicist to possess a bachelors or masters degree in these disciplines. The practice of ergonomics can find use in several aspects of human life such as workplace, home setting, education and sports. The practical study of ergonomics involves the design of working equipments such as computer chairs or keyboards. Other ergonomic discipline involves the study of the environment of the world as is referred to as quantum ergonomics (Gilmore et al. 1998). History of ergonomics In the United States, the field of ergonomic is believed to have originated during the period of the Second World War (Wickens Hollands, 2000), even though developments that led to its inception can be traced back to the 20th century. Before the Second World War, the main focus of the work place was designing humans to adapt to the machines used at work basically referred to trial and error method as opposed to designing the machines used at work to match the requirements of humans. This can be observed form the study conducted by Taylor in which the selection criteria, time and motion studies, training and work rest programs were examined (Taylor, 1911). This study of time and motions was expounded by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (Gilbreth Gilbreth, 1917). Majority of the ergonomic developments were necessitated by military requirements. With the commencement of the First World War, which was the first conflict where airplane was used in combat, there emerged the need to adequately train pilots new mechanisms of war. This necessitated the development of new aviation technologies based on psychology. In addition these trends prompted the emergence of aeromedical research studies. Even though progress was made during this period, the momentum for developing and exploring the discipline further was no achieved since there was lack of vital technological advancements and personnel due to the ongoing Second World War (Meister, 1999). The period between the First World War and the Second World War recorded a significant decline in research, however, some success were realized during this period. Aeromedical research work did not stop during this time which realized advances in several laboratories built across the United States such as the Brooks Air Force Base located in the city of Texas and the Wright Field situated in Ohio. These laboratories were significant in the development of ergonomics. Their study was focused on identification of attributes of successful pilots and establishing the impacts of environment stressors on the performance and productivity of flights. Furthermore, the study of anthropometry which is a field concerned with the measurement of the human body was considerably employed in designing airplanes during this period. Other researches were also being done in the private sector such as the automobile behavioral studies (Forbes, 1939). The emergence of the Second World War, and its accompanied needs, formed the driving force behind the development of the field of ergonomics. First, the demand of mobilizing and recruiting substantial numbers of people both men and women made it very difficult for individuals to specialize in a particular job. Therefore, there was a shift in focus where individual’s capability was designed in order to reduce the negative impacts of their shortcomings. Secondly, the period of the Second World War witnessed the turning point in terms of technological advances. The rapid development of technology outpaced the capability of human to adapt and offset poor designs. This was particularly observed in airplane accidents experienced by vastly trained pilots as a result of problems witnessed with the configuration of the control systems and the instrument displays (Fitts Jones, 1947). In addition, enemy targets were unfortunately missed by machine controlled radars (Wickens Hollands, 2000). Psychologists were employed to experiment and study these emerging issues by employing laboratory mechanisms in order to solve these problems. As a result, the discipline was ergonomics emerged despite the fact that the people involved in its development failed to realize it during this period (Meister, 1999). The two subsequent decades immediate after the Second World War witnessed a growing military research catalyzed largely by the emergence of the cold war. Military research institutions developed during this war were enlarged and new ones created. The private sectors also continued to develop ergonomic groups mainly in aviation and communication, and digital Industry. The Human Factors Society, a professional body mandated to study ergonomics in the United States was established in 1957 and had an approximate of 90 members then who attended the first inaugural meeting. This name was later abolished in 1992 and replaced with the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Currently, this society boasts of over 4500 people, majority of who are participants in the technical groups established under this society, student bodies and attend the yearly meetings. Beginning in the 1960s, the field of ergonomics continued to expand especially in the previously identified areas. This development expanded into new fields such as computer architecture and software, nuclear weaponry, internet technology among others. In the recent past, new areas of study have emerged which includes neuroergonomics and nanoergonomics (Jubel, 2007). Conclusion A persistent premise that has been developed over several decades is the ever increasing center of influence that ergonomics has attempted to encompass, as technological advances continue to emerge. What simply began as a mere detachment of experimental psychology focusing on the interaction and relationship of people with machines in the work place has tremendously expanded to cover almost all aspects of interaction of individuals and their environment. Several researchers have hypothesized about the future of human factors and ergonomics. With the speedy technological advances in such areas as biotechnology and nanotechnology, it would be very exciting to speculate the emerging problems that ergonomics would be called upon to solve in the future (Vicente, 2008). In the today’s modern world, as it was the case during its inception, human factors and ergonomics has still remained a multi disciplinary field of study. In the United States for instance, this discipline has expanded from behavioral sciences including empirical psychology, and some engineering fields of study. Among the countries in the European block, the discipline of human factors and ergonomics has found its stronghold in physical science disciplines such as human physiology. Currently, people from diverse educational backgrounds and disciplines varying from physiology, engineering and psychology have focused their exclusive skills and knowledge in the study of the interaction and relationship of people with systems.

Analysis of the Demographics in Europe

Analysis of the Demographics in Europe The Demographic Sector in Europe This dissertation will present a historical overview of European population trends before examining in greater detail specific causes and effects of certain demographic changes. In particular, demographic changes which occurred in the UK between 1950 and 1990 and the economic consequences associated with reforms in Eastern Europe will be examined with a view to assessing the possible welfare implications. Environmental stress is increasing, due to both â€Å"unsustainable consumption and production patterns† (including high resource consumption in wealthy countries and among better-off groups in all countries) and demographic factors such as rapid population growth, population distribution and migration. 1.1 Historical Overview In a European context, the population was never more than 100,000. This represented a far lower carrying capacity than gorillas, as humans were carnivores (Emceed and Jones, 1978). Human population began to spread as the Ice Age started to retreat (25,000 10,000 B.C.). Migrations took place into the Ar tic Circle, across the Bering Straits, and also to Australia via Indonesian archipelago. The human population in 10,000 BC was probably double what it was in 100,000 BC (earliest appearance of homo sapiens) – standing at approximately 4 million. The increase had been achieved by increasing range and opening up new territories -not by new food technologies. Population density was thus traditionally low. This was to change with the switch from traditional food (hunter)gatherer to food production (Old Stone Age paleolithic 30,000 BC -to New Stone Age neolithic 6,000 BC) and as a consequence, population density increased from 0.1 km2 to 1 per km2. In the period from 1000BC 400 BC the world’s population doubled from10m to 20m. Greece’s population however, tripled to 3m. Greece’population growth meant that they were able to forge a new civilisation and become the dominant force. Malthusian claims that uncontrolled population growth can potentially lead to population decline as result of increased competition for resources, war, famine and poverty,were somewhat realized through the Asia Minor conquest and an eventual decline in the Greek population to approximately 2million by 1 AD. The population of Italy was the next major European country to experience major growth. By 300 BC the population of Italy numbered 4million people. By 1 AD this had risen to 7 million whilst the total European population was only 31 million. By 200 AD the Roman Empire had 46 million subjects including approximately 78% of this total in Europe. This peak declined to 26 million in total during the following400 years. This obviously leads to the question whether or not economic/ political / military development is a precursor to, or consequence of population development. In Greece the malthusian limits were reached which resulted in out-migration / foreign conquests. Consequently the population of Greece fell between 300 B.C. and A.D. 1, to 2 million .Population density also fell four-fold.   From the 8th century onwards there was a new increase in population,leading to a population level of approximately 36 million by 1000 A.D.,which compares to peak figures from the classical period. Population then continued to increase rapidly for nearly 300 years. By and large,increases were in the north and west, but there were also increases from the east (e.g. Portugal). The population in these regions were,however, relatively low to begin with. The continued population increase was brought to an abrupt halt in 1347 by bubonic plague -Black Death. Increases in mortality and reductions in nutrition had tremendous impact on the world’s population. Between a quarter and third of the population were to perish during this period. There was however, eventually a general recovery and by 1500 the world population was nearing 80 million, increasing to 100 million by 1600. Despite Religious wars, plague and economic upheaval which changed the political scene during the 17th Century, population rose to around 120million by 1700. Economic factors were vital in assuring continued population growth and were symbolized by better technology, sea route sand growing towns. The period 1750 – 1845 was marked by one of major growth.  During this period the population level rose from 140 million in 1750 to 250 million in 1845. Mortality changed definitively resulting in growth being assured unless and until fertility fell. The modernisation and urbanisation cycle had begun with famine and plague seemingly belonging to the past, although there was an extreme exception Ireland. Despite this, Europe’s population reached 450million by 1914. Population in the 20th Century was to be ravaged by both war (WWI and WWII) and mass emigration to the USA, Canada and Latin America. 2. Main demographic trends in the UK post WWII Between 1951 and 1981, the total population of the UK increased from50.4million to 55.9million. The total number of births rose steadily from c.800,000 in 1950 to a peak of over one million (1,015,000) in1964. This was the so-called â€Å"baby boom† of the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1964 the crude birth rate of the UK stood at an all time high of18.8 per 1000. In 1963 the oral contraceptive pill first became available to women, and in 1968 the Abortion Act legalised abortion in certain circumstances. The combination of these two factors, especially the former, initiated a down-turn in birth rate which continued for 13 years until 1977 when the number of live births was 657,000 to give ac rude birth rate of 11.8 per 1000. For two years, 1976 and 1977, the number of births was actually less than the number of deaths and the country briefly experienced a natural decrease of population .Subsequently, during the 1980s, the number of births rose to about700,000 per year to give a crude birth rate of about 13 per 1000. This slight up-turn in birth rate has been explained as a result of couples postponing the start of a family. Between 1965 and 1985 the average age of mothers having their first child increased from 21 to 27 years of age. Mortality in the UK since 1950 has been subject to far less fluctuation than fertility during the same period. The total number of deaths in the UK each year since 1950 has been between 600,000 and 700,000. Crude death rates during a period of 40 years have stubbornly remained within the range of 11 to 13 per 1000. This is significantly higher than the crude mortality rate of most other countries of North West Europe. The causes of death have shown little change over the period with diseases of the circulatory system and cancer firmly established as the main killing diseases and jointly accounting for over 70% of all deaths by the 1980s. The failure of the UK to reduce its mortality rate during the second half of the 20th century has been attributed to various factors; namely, declining standards of health care, the maintenance sofa large stock of obsolete slum housing, high unemployment rates and high levels of poverty and deprivation. In the late-1980s, infant mortality rates, probably the most sensitive indicator of the quality of the social and physical environment for human life, actually rose in many parts of the country. Detailed statistics for the numbers of migrants entering and leaving the UK only extend back as far as 1964. Comprehensive statistics for the numbers of immigrants and emigrants are not available for the period of the 1950s and early-1960s when large numbers of West Indian sand Asians entered the UK. Post-1964 statistics reveal considerable short-term fluctuations in the numbers of both immigrants and emigrants. However, with the exception of just one or two years, the net migration balance is a negative one; that is to say, in most years more people leave than enter the UK. Despite the popular myths about the flood of immigrants entering the UK, the reality is that the UK Lisa net â€Å"exporter† of population in most years. Since the early 1960s,the numbers entering the UK have been checked and reduced by succession of Immigration Acts (1962, 1968, 1972 etc) designed to make the conditions of entry more demanding and settlement in the UK more difficult. The long-term trend for immigration and emigration appear to be related to â€Å"push† factors in the source areas rather than â€Å"pull†factors in the destination area. Thus, peaks of immigration appear to be related to particular overseas events. For example, the expulsion of Asians from Uganda by President Am in in 1972 corresponds with a minor peak in the flow of immigrants into the UK. Conversely, the rising tide of unemployment in the UK during the early-1980s corresponds with as harp up-turn in the numbers leaving the country between 1981 and 1985. One of the most obvious demographic changes in post-war Britain has been its transformation into a multi-racial and multi-cultural society.rior to 1991, the UK Census did not include questions on race and ethnicity, so that it was impossible to obtain precise information about the size and distribution of minority groups. However,â€Å"place-of-birth† statistics derived from the census show that by 1981about six percent of the UK population was â€Å"overseas-born†. The total percentage of overseas-born population is not large, but it is very unevenly distributed. Racial and ethnic minorities tend to cluster in the inner city districts of particular towns and cities. Discrimination in the fields of housing and employment produced tensions and unrest which finally erupted in urban riots in 1981 and again in 1985. 3. Post-war political economy The year 1989 heralded a great change within Eastern Europe, as revolutions throughout the region swept away the communist governments,marking an end to conditions of political, economic and social repression. The major impetus in precipitating change was the desire for freedom on the part of the masses. Allied to this demand for social freedom was a general will for improved standards of living conditions,with the belief of the majority being that this could be achieved through the reorganisation of society along the lines of western-style free market economies. There was certainly a need for substantial economic reform within Eastern Europe in terms of â€Å"freeing up† the market economy and the need for some type of transformation strategy. However, a great deal of debate is concerned not with the actual need for transformation, but with the actual method of transformation. One can best define the argument in terms of the proponents of a gradualist approach to transformation. There are a number of economists who favour a radical approach to transformation, arguing the necessity for speed,comprehensiveness and simultaneity of change, who have been accused by other economists of stressing an over reliance on the market, and of failing to fully understand the nature of market economies. To explore the debate fully it is necessary for one to consider the claims of those economists that are in favour or the radical approach to transformation. â€Å"Both economic logic and the political situation argue for a rapid and comprehensive process of transformation† (Lipton and Sacs, 1990). This quote is from two of the main advocates of the radical approach. They emphasise the speed and comprehensiveness of change within Eastern Europe, believing that there should be a seamless web of transition.The first stage, they claim, should be achieving a macroeconomic stability: â€Å"structural reforms cannot be put in place without a working price system; a working price system cannot be put into place without ending excess demand and creating a convertible currency; and a credit squeeze and tight macroeconomic policy cannot be sustained unless prices are realistic, so that there is a rational basis for deciding which firms should be allowed to close.† Thus as crucial to their arguments for a comprehensive reform process is the need for real structural adjustment, and for this macroeconomic shock to be accompanied by a num ber of associated measures such as selling off state assets, freeing up the private sector, establishing procedures for bankruptcy, the preparation of a social security net and widespread tax reforms. Advocates of shock therapy transformation use a number of political reasons for their emphasis upon rapidity. Perhaps the most important of the political reasons is that the new governments would be best able to carry out strong measures at the outset of their office, and thus deny opponents the chance to subvert the process of change and retain some of the irrationalities of the old style regime. A further argument in favour of the shock therapy transformation is that there is a view of the market as being an institutional package, that it is an integrated and â€Å"organic† whole, the elements of which cannot be introduced one Bata time and in a gradual fashion. Thus certain economists have argued that the only way for the market system to function is if all of it score institutions are introduced simultaneously, with the core institutions being a legal infrastructure, private property, free markets and prices, competition, and macroeconomic policy instruments. However, the shock therapy approach to economic transformation has benignities by a number of economists. Although by common consensus is a definite necessity for change the shock therapy approach presents us with a number of difficulties. Perhaps the greatest problem concerns the nature of markets, for there is little knowledge of how tactually establish a market system. The situation in Eastern Europe is most certainly unique, for never before have there been attempts to establish a market economies from the wreckage of the communist system,since historically the development of free markets went hand in hand with the process of industrialisation. â€Å"Post – communist countries,however, do have a more or less developed industrial infrastructure,social services and political expectations to be governed in some sort of western democratic fashion. In short, our knowledge does not extend to the conditions under which Soviet type economies have to be reformed† (Pick el, 1 992). Andreas Pick el identified a number of criticisms of the shock therapy. The emphasis placed upon comprehensive change stresses the need for the creation of a â€Å"critical minimum mass of market institutions† necessary for the function of the market economy. Picketer that at best we have only sketchy knowledge of what thisâ€Å"critical minimum mass† is, and that claims as to the necessity for comprehensive change ignore the complex realities of the situation.Take for example, what Perry in his list of measures with respect to the creation of â€Å"free markets with free prices: there must be free entry into the market and free exit from it. This mans that there are no barriers to entering market transactions, that workers and manager scan be fired, and that unprofitable firms go bankrupt. There is not as ingle existing market economy that fulfils this requirement† (Pick el,1992). Therefore how can we hope to ascertain what is necessary for the wholesale importa tion of the market economy. The justification for speed on the part of the shock therapists owe sits origins to a conception of two clearly defined and opposite systems, those of socialism and capitalism. Speed is necessary in the transformation because plan and market institutions are said to be incompatible, that the new system will work badly or not at all as lon gas it contains too many elements of the old system. Pick el argues that this is merely another way of invoking the â€Å"critical mass† argument again. â€Å"Granted that the quick establishment of essential institutions crucial for the success of reforms, at which point is it possible to slow this down in order to reduce, for example, some of the social costs of transformation, or to consider alternative options† (Pick el,1992). As with the â€Å"critical mass† argument we have little way of determining how quickly or for how long should the process be continued with pace. The necessity for simultaneity, as emphasized by the proponents of the shock approach, is criticised by Pickle as revealing problems with the radicals’ conception of economics as â€Å"systems†. Pick el mentions’s statement that â€Å"the need for simultaneous action on the institutional front arises from the holistic nature of systems, their essentially integrated order†. Pick el then attacks this stance,claiming that the â€Å"market system† only exists in textbooks, that there are as many institutional configurations as there are actually existing market economies. Essentially, claims as to the necessary institution sand processes are somewhat speculative, for when one considers today’market economies one can see that there have been numerous stages of growth, development and mutation. Virtually none of the modern market economies have developed along the lines of simultaneous establishment of core institutions as prescribed by the shock therapist theorists,suggesting it is indeed possible for transition to the market to be accomplished in disjointed and incoherent ways. It is most certainly possible for one to claim that economists who emphasise the speed, immediacy, and comprehensiveness of reforms in Eastern Europe, both overestimate the properties of the market and misunderstand the nature of market economies. It is important for one to bear in mind that the major difficulty that exists in the attempts to undergo the radical transition process as prescribed by the shock therapists is that the â€Å"wholesale institutional transformation produces range of unintended consequences that will undermine the realisation of the original goal† (Pick el, 1992). To this end Pick el uses the example of East Germany in order to illustrate the â€Å"ideal empirical test case for the strengths and weaknesses of the radical strategy. Pick el begins by claiming that the two treaties between the FRG and the GDR, on monetary, economic and social union and on unification, created what proponents of the shock therapy deem essential – â€Å"the speedy creation of what are considered to be the essential practical and economic institutions and the rules of capitalist democracy† (Picked,1992). Pick el claims that the radical shock therapy approach in East Germany created a number of unforeseen consequences which possessed implications for the future development of the country. The first of these consequences was the collapse of the state sector, resulting in massive unemployment and serious problems in the existing private sector, something which is still affecting Germany’s economy. The second consequence was that the restitution of pre-communist property rights and titles, which produced hundreds of thousands of claims and created an uncertain atmosphere for investors. The third unforeseen consequence was that there was an uninterrupted migration of workers from east to west and the fourth was the so cio-psychological and political disembowelment of large sectors of the East German population, that is, the colonisation or creation of a de facto group of second class citizens. The argument here is that the radical strategy in Germany failed in crucial respects. Rather than create the conditions necessary for sustained economic development, the radical approach led to the occurrence of a number of unforeseen circumstances that led to the collapse of the East German economy, creating lasting structural damage. Pick el claims that since the radical shock theory approach was attempted under rather favourable conditions in East Germany it generates a significant amount of concern for other countries where the conditions are not so favourable. 4. Sustainable development Population growth and distribution have significant roles to play in the sustainability of the worlds vast resources. Not only the number of people, but also the lifestyle, consumption patterns, and regions people inhabit and use directly affect the environment. The relationship between population growth and environmental degradation may appear to be rather straightforward. More people demand more resources and generate more waste. Clearly one of the challenges of growing population is that the mere presence of so many people sharing limited number of resources strains the environment. But when looking at the impact of human activities, the situation is more complicated due to the wide variety of government policies, technologies, and consumption patterns worldwide. The link between population growth and the environment is found somewhere between the view that population growth is solely responsible for all environmental ills and the view that more people means the development of new technologies to overcome any environmental problems. Most environmentalists agree that population growth is only one of several interacting factors that place pressure on the environment.High levels of consumption and industrialization, inequality in wealth and land distribution, inappropriate government policies, poverty, and inefficient technologies all contribute to environmental decline. Infarct, population may not be a root cause in environmental decline, but rather just one factor among many that exacerbate or multiply the negative effects of other social, economic, and political factors. Bio diversity is a term applied to describe the complexity of life. It is generally measured at three levels: the variety of species; the genetic diversity found within members of the same species (what makes you different from your neighbour); and the diversity of the ecosystems within which species live. These three levels are intimately connected. Genetic diversity is essential to the prosperity of the species, giving it the resources to adapt. And the number of species within an ecosystem is closely tied to the health and size of the ecosystem://www.ourplanet.com/aaas/pages/bio01.html # (Rosen,1999). However it is defined, bio diversity is the stuff of life. However far we may be removed from wild bio diversity in our daily lives, it remains the source of our food and most of our medicines. In addition,15 percent of our energy is derived from burning plant materials. Evening the United States, wild species contribute around 4.5 percent of GDP(De Leo and Levin, 1997). Some of our uses are direct. Billions of people still harvest wild orbush food around the world. Between a fifth and a half of all food consumed by the poor in the developing world is gathered rather than cultivated, while at global level we obtain 16 percent of our animal protein from sea fish caught in the wild. The World Health Organization(WHO) estimates that more than 60 percent of the worlds population relies on traditional plant medicines for day-to-day primary healthcare ( Bali ck and Cox, 1996), and 3 000 plant species are used in birth control alone (My ers, 1979). The primary cause of this loss is not hunting or overexploitation,though these play a part, but loss of natural habitat. Habitat loss is generally greatest where population density is highest. A study nobodies data from 102 countries found that in the most densely populated 51 countries (averaging 168 people per square kilo meter), 5.1percent of bird species and 3.7 percent of plant species were threatened. In the 51 less densely populated countries (averaging 22people per square kilo meter), the proportions of threatened species were only half as high at 2.7 percent and 1.8 percent respectively(UNFPA, 1997). 5. Political and socioeconomic geography of Europe The Second World War was a catastrophe in terms of the huge loss of life and indeed by this very fact it can bee seen as an important watershed in the development of Europe. The economic and social development of Europe was severely dislocated and fractured .Industrialisation trends were re orientated to serve the demands of the war machine. Most areas of Europe by the close of the war were facing the same problem, that of reconstruction. The war created the conditions which were conducive for the progressive restructuring of social institutions. The experience of war seemed to demonstrate that central governments could control economic development and most European nations introduced some form of economic planning in the postwar period. The working classes began to have a representative with the emergence of legitimate parties participating in the political process. There was a shift in governmental policy to welfare state policies with post-war Europe recognizing the need to integrate the working classes into political life. There were several factors contributing to the restructuring of Europe and these are important when examining any increase in the welfare of Europe’s population since the Second World War. At the end of the war Europe was divided into the capitalist West and the communist East.This resulted in differential economic and social growth as well as obvious differences in political ideology. The capitalist West benefited from substantial America Aid under the Marshal Plan. Rapid industrial development was favoured in Europe to counter the perceived threat from the East, but also important was the fact that America emerged from the war with expanded industries which were also more efficient and therefore they needed trading partners and investment opportunities. The Soviet Union however, were not as fortunate and suffered heavily from the destruction inflicted upon its people,agriculture and industry, all of which needed to be recreated. The war provided for opportunities of peacetime recovery and prosperity. It had forced and even closer union of science and technology and in the new world it seemed that all problems could be solved through the development and application of new technologies .Damaged production could be replaced by new equipment, raising efficiency and stimulating capital goods industries. The war itself had provided the impetus behind scientific and technological development,which would prove to be the key behind future European development. The great hardships of the 1930’s encouraged the view that national governments had a responsibility to protect and enhance the quality of life through improved systems of social security, health care and education. And it was improvements in these areas of welfare that the population of Europe has, more or less, been a benefactor. Birth rate shave declined in most European countries, whilst in Northwest Europe it was close to, or even below, the replacement levels by the early 1980s.Marriage rates also declined following a relative peak after the war.The lowest levels are again in Northwest Europe, particularly Sweden,whilst Eastern Europe displays the highest inutility rates. The cause for declining birth rates is complex. Women’s rates have changed, there has been increased urbanisation leading to a reduced need for farm labour, increased opportunities for higher education, declining influence of the Church. Of great significance in explaining a decrease in birth rates, and itself an indicator of social welfare, is the infant mortality rate. Infant mortality has been significantly reduced since the second world war. In france in 1950, the infant mortality rate was 52 per 1000 deaths before the age of 1 year old. By 1970 this had been reduced to 18 per 100. Sweden, Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands all had the lowest rates whilst Romania, Portugal and Yugoslavia suffered from the highest rates of infant mortality. In Europe, life expectancy is at its highest levels in history, with the average life expectancy being 75 years for someone in Western Europe and 72 in Eastern Europe. Death rates have decreased in virtually every European country since the Second World War due to improvements in medicine and medical care, sanitation, health provisions and technology. Demographic changes led to increasing proportions of the young and old dominating population structures. The welfare state had to respond accordingly with more emphasis having to be placed upon areas such as housing, education, child support,retirement and pensions. With increasing prosperity after the war,Europeans standard of living significantly improved and this move toward modernity employed classical demographic features involved in the process of modernisation. Several Western European countries experienced decolonisation and reparation of their expatriates and natives of former colonial areas.In Algeria 600,000 people â€Å"returned† to France in 1962 following independence. The boom of the 1960s resulted in some countries needing to attract migrant labour. Indian, North Africans, Spanish, Portuguese,Italians, Yugoslavs, Greeks and Turks all poured into the Northern and Western urban and industrial centres of Europe. Migrant workers were more numerate in the Low countries and exceptionally high in Switzerland, where, in 1974, 37 per cent of the workforce were foreigners. In 1982 there were 4.2 million foreigners working in France every 10th worker in France was non-French. In Germany there were 4.6 million non-Germans, of which Turkish, Italian and Yugoslav workers were the most dominant. These immigrant workers constitute a form of sub-proletariat, taking the jobs natives did’t want to do. They were(and are) often badly tre ated and denied political rights. They usually find themselves in ghettos, and in times of economic downturn find themselves the targets of racial abuse. Urbanisation was a major feature of postwar European society and was in essence a continuation of a nineteenth century trend. By 1975 most Europeans lived in cities – one-third of the Greek population lived in Athens. City growth was primarily the result of rural to urban migration, with such incentives as higher wages, better housing,attractive employment, educational opportunities and more access to recreation and entertainment. Urbanisation, particularly if it is coupled with high levels of immigrants can soon lead to overcrowded housing and poor sanitation. With huge increases in car ownership and the amount of automobiles on the road together with the location of industries in, or on the periphery of, cities, some major urban and industrial centres of Europe have become unpleasant areas in which to live. The subsidised housing which were created for the working classes under the social security provisions of the welfare state were often poor quality and consisted of high-rise buildings located in peripheral areas of the city. The HLM in France and estates on the north-side of Dublin, such as the Allah and Bally are examples of this type of housing. It is evident in such areas that the great disparities in income or certain social disadvantages were not dealt with despite some improvements in health-care, family allowances, education and other social services. Severe social problems face  people caught in the poverty cycle in these areas and, consequently, with such levels of despair, the rates for drug abuse, crime and deviancy are relatively high. The decline of the agricultural sector of the economy and the loss of farm populations was another major feature of post-war Europe. This transition was to be expected as the workforce moved toward an industrially-based economy and later increasingly dominated by the tertiary sector. In 1950 80 per cent of the workforce in Bulgaria was engaged in agriculture. By 1980 this figure had declined to 20 percent. This trend can be seen in several other countries, for example46% of the population in Eire were engaged in agriculture in 1949 but had reduced to 20% of the population by 1979. Spain exhibited a similar trend with 52% of the population engaged in agriculture in 1940 but by1979 this had been reduced to 20% of the population. This trend had the greatest impact on peripheral European countries industrialising after the Second World War. Technological innovations had made agriculture more intensive and mechanised. This initiated mass migration to urban areas, and also was to result in increasin